Co-application of alternate wetting and drying irrigation and Bacillus subtilis increases yield and reduces N2O emissions in paddy ecosystem

doi:10.1016/j.jia.2026.03.050

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Co-application of alternate wetting and drying irrigation and Bacillus subtilis increases yield and reduces N₂O emissions in paddy ecosystem

Fan Ye¹,Siyu Li², Yaguang Xue³, Weiyang Zhang¹, Hao Zhang¹, Junfei Gu¹, Jianchang Yang¹, Yun Chen¹, Lijun Liu^1#

¹Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology/Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Cultivation and Physiology/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops/ Key Laboratory of Arable Land Quality Monitoring and Evaluation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China

²Jiangsu Lixiahe Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Yangzhou 225007, China

³Jiangsu Yanjiang Institute of Agricultural Science, Nantong 226012, China

Highlights

ž Bacillus subtilis (BS) increased rice yield under both continuous flooding (CF) and alternate wetting and drying (WD) irrigation.

ž WD alone increased N₂O emissions, while BS application mitigated N₂O emissions by 30-41% under WD.

ž BS+BS enhanced soil N transformation and nosZ abundance, balancing high yield and low N₂O emissions.

Abstract
References

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摘要

干湿交替灌溉（WD）是水稻生产上一种有效的节水措施，但会增加稻田氧化亚氮（N₂O）的排放。枯草芽孢杆菌（BS）等植物促生菌能够促进作物生长；然而，干湿交替灌溉下施用枯草芽孢杆菌对水稻产量和N₂O排放的影响尚不明确。本研究通过为期3年的田间试验，选用两个粳稻品种，评估了两种灌溉模式（常规淹水灌溉（CF）和干湿交替灌溉（WD））以及枯草芽孢杆菌施用（不施BS，-BS；施用BS，+BS）对水稻产量和N₂O排放的影响。结果表明，在两种灌溉模式下，施用枯草芽孢杆菌均显著提高了水稻产量。与CF-BS处理相比，CF+BS和WD+BS处理分别使水稻增产了3.4-6.0%和5.8-12.7%，主要归因于总颖花数的增加。CF+BS处理对N₂O排放无显著影响，而WD-BS处理显著增加了N₂O累积排放量；但与WD-BS相比，WD+BS处理使N₂O排放量减少了30.0-41.0%。WD+BS处理提高了根系氧化力，增加了20–40 cm土层中的根表面积和根体积密度。该处理还降低了稻田土壤NO₃⁻-N含量，提高了NH₄⁺/NO₃⁻比值，改善了脲酶和蔗糖酶活性，促进溶解性有机碳（DOC）和微生物生物量氮（MBN）的积累，并且提高N₂O还原酶基因（nosZ）丰度。总之，干湿交替灌溉下施用枯草芽孢杆菌可在提高水稻产量的同时降低稻田N₂O排放。根系功能、地上部农艺性状、土壤酶活性的改善，以及优化的氮素转化和微生物过程，是干湿交替配合施用枯草芽孢杆菌实现稻田生态系统高产和低排的关键机制。

Abstract

Alternate wetting and drying irrigation (WD) is an effective water-saving practice for rice production but often increases nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. Plant growth-promoting bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis (BS) can enhance crop growth; however, the combined effects of WD and BS on rice yield and N₂O emissions remain unclear. A 3-year field experiment using two japonica rice cultivars was conducted to evaluate the effects of two irrigation regimes (continuous flooding (CF) and WD) and Bacillus subtilis (BS) application (without BS, -BS; and with BS, +BS) on rice yield and N₂O emissions. Results showed that BS application significantly increased rice yield under both irrigation regimes. Compared with CF-BS, CF+BS and WD+BS increased yield by 3.4-6.0% and 5.8-12.7%, respectively, mainly due to a higher total spikelet number. CF+BS had no significant effect on N₂O emissions, whereas WD-BS markedly increased cumulative N₂O emissions, while WD+BS reduced emissions by 30.0-41.0% compared with WD-BS. The WD+BS treatment enhanced root oxidation activity and increased root surface area and volume density in the 20–40 cm soil layer. It also decreased soil NO₃⁻-N content, raised the NH₄⁺/NO₃⁻ ratio, and enhanced urease and sucrase activities, thereby promoting the accumulation of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN), along with a higher abundance of the nitrous oxide reductase gene (nosZ) associated with N₂O reduction. Overall, integrating WD with BS increased rice yield while mitigating N₂O emissions. Enhanced root function, and aboveground agronomic traits, improved soil enzyme activity, and optimized nitrogen transformation and microbial processes were the key mechanisms achieving high yield with reduced environmental impact.

Keywords: rice (Oryza sativa L.) alternate wetting and drying irrigation Bacillus subtilis yield N₂O emissions

Online: 20 March 2026

Fund:

We are grateful for grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32572444, 42577138), the Suzhou Project to Strengthen Agriculture through S&T, China (SNG2025018), the Jiangsu Agriculture Science and Technology Innovation Fund, China (CX(23)1035), the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, China (PAPD), the High-end Talent Support Plan of Yangzhou University, China, the Open Project Program of Key Laboratory of Arable Land Quality Monitoring and Evaluation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, China (Yangzhou University, GDJP2025010), and Postgraduate Research & Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province, China (KYCX24_3780).

About author: #Correspondence Lijun Liu, E-mail: ljliu@yzu.edu.cn

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Fan Ye, Siyu Li, Yaguang Xue, Weiyang Zhang, Hao Zhang, Junfei Gu, Jianchang Yang, Yun Chen, Lijun Liu. 2026. Co-application of alternate wetting and drying irrigation and Bacillus subtilis increases yield and reduces N₂O emissions in paddy ecosystem. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, Doi:10.1016/j.jia.2026.03.050

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