The physiological and metabolic differences in maize under different nitrogen (N) levels are the basis of reasonable N management, which is vital in improving fertilizer utilization and reducing environmental pollution.  In this paper, on the premise of defining the N fertilizer efficiency and yield under different long-term N fertilization treatments, the corresponding differential metabolites and their metabolic pathways were analyzed by untargeted metabolomics in maize.  N stress, including deficiency and excess, affects the balance of carbon (C) metabolism and N metabolism by regulating C metabolites (sugar alcohols and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates) and N metabolites (various amino acids and their derivatives).  L-alanine, L-phenylalanine, L-histidine, and L-glutamine decreased under N deficiency, and L-valine, proline, and L-histidine increased under N excess.  In addition to sugar alcohols and the above amino acids in C and N metabolism, differential secondary metabolites, flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, luteolin, rutin, and diosmetin), and hormones (e.g., indoleacetic acid, trans-zeatin, and jasmonic acid) were initially considered as indicators for N stress diagnosis under this experimental conditions.  This study also indicated that the leaf metabolic levels of N2 (120 kg ha^–1 N) and N3 (180 kg ha^–1 N) were similar, consistent with the differences in their physiological indexes and yields over 12 years.  This study verified the feasibility of reducing N fertilization from 180 kg ha^–1 (locally recommended) to 120 kg ha^–1 at the metabolic level, which provided a mechanistic basis for reducing N fertilization without reducing yield, further improving the N utilization rate and protecting the ecological environment.

Climate change has a significant impact on agriculture. However, the impact investigation is currently limited to the analysis of meteorological data, and there is a dearth of long-term monitoring of crop phenology and soil moisture associated with climate change. In this study, temperature and precipitation (1957–2020) were recorded, crop growth (1981–2019) data were collected, and field experiments were conducted at central and eastern Gansu and southern Ningxia, China. The mean temperature increased by 0.36°C, and precipitation decreased by 11.17 mm per decade. The average evapotranspiration (ET) of winter wheat in 39 years from 1981 to 2019 was 362.1 mm, demonstrating a 22.1-mm decrease every 10 years. However, the ET of spring maize was 405.5 mm over 35 years (1985–2019), which did not show a downward trend. Every 10 years, growth periods were shortened by 5.19 and 6.47 d, sowing dates were delayed by 3.56 and 1.68 d, and maturity dates advanced by 1.76 and 5.51 d, respectively, for wheat and maize. A film fully-mulched ridge–furrow (FMRF) system with a rain-harvesting efficiency of 65.7‒92.7% promotes deep rainwater infiltration into the soil. This leads to double the soil moisture in-furrow, increasing the water satisfaction rate by 110‒160%. A 15-year grain yield of maize increased by 19.87% with the FMRF compared with that of half-mulched flat planting. Grain yield and water use efficiency of maize increased by 20.6 and 17.4% when the density grew from 4.5×10⁴ to 6.75×10⁴ plants ha^–1 and improved by 12.0 and 12.7% when the density increased from 6.75×10⁴ to 9.0×10⁴ plants ha^–1, respectively. Moreover, responses of maize yield to density and the corresponding density of the maximum yield varied highly in different rainfall areas. The density parameter suitable for water planting was 174 maize plants ha^–1 with 10 mm rainfall. Therefore, management strategies should focus on adjusting crop planting structure, FMRF water harvesting system, and water-suitable planting to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change and enhance sustainable production of maize in the drylands.

The red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren, poses a significant threat to biodiversity, agriculture, and public health in its introduced ranges.  While chemicals such as toxic baits and dust are the main methods for S. invicta control, toxic baits are slow, requiring approximately one or two weeks, but dust can eliminate the colony of fire ants rapidly in just three to five days.  To explore more active ingredients for fire ant control using dusts, the toxicity of bifenthrin and dimefluthrin, the horizontal transfer of bifenthrin and dimefluthrin dust and their efficacy in the field were tested.  The results showed that the LD₅₀ (lethal dose) values of bifenthrin and dimefluthrin were 3.40 and 1.57 ng/ant, respectively.  The KT₅₀ (median knockdown time) and KT₉₅ (95% knockdown time) values of a 20 μg mL^–1 bifenthrin dose were 7.179 and 16.611 min, respectively.  The KT₅₀ and KT₉₅ of a 5 μg mL^–1 dimefluthrin dose were 1.538 and 2.825 min, respectively.  The horizontal transfers of bifenthrin and dimefluthrin among workers were effective.  The mortality of recipients (secondary mortality) and secondary recipients (tertiary mortality) were both over 80% at 48 h after 0.25, 0.50 and 1.00% bifenthrin dust treatments.  The secondary mortality of recipients was over 99% at 48 h after 0.25, 0.50 and 1.00% dimefluthrin dust treatments, but the tertiary mortality was below 20%.  The field trial results showed that both bifenthrin and dimefluthrin exhibited excellent fire ant control effects, and the comprehensive control effects of 1.00% bifenthrin and dimefluthrin dusts at 14 d post-treatment were 95.87 and 85.70%, respectively.

Phosphorus (P) is a nonrenewable resource and a critical element for plant growth that plays an important role in improving crop yield.  Excessive P fertilizer application is widespread in agricultural production, which not only wastes phosphate resources but also causes P accumulation and groundwater pollution.  Here, we hypothesized that the apparent P balance of a crop system could be used as an indicator for identifying the critical P input in order to obtain a high yield with high phosphorus use efficiency (PUE).  A 12-year field experiment with P fertilization rates of 0, 45, 90, 135, 180, and 225 kg P₂O₅ ha^–1 was conducted to determine the crop yield, PUE, and soil Olsen-P value response to P balance, and to optimize the P input.  Annual yield stagnation occurred when the P fertilizer application exceeded a certain level, and high yield and PUE levels were achieved with annual P fertilizer application rates of 90–135 kg P₂O₅ ha^–1.  A critical P balance range of 2.15–4.45 kg P ha^–1 was recommended to achieve optimum yield with minimal environmental risk.  The critical P input range estimated from the P balance was 95.7–101 kg P₂O₅ ha^–1, which improved relative yield (>90%) and PUE (90.0–94.9%).  In addition, the P input–output balance helps in assessing future changes in Olsen-P values, which increased by 4.07 mg kg^–1 of P for every 100 kg of P surplus.  Overall, the P balance can be used as a critical indicator for P management in agriculture, providing a robust reference for limiting P excess and developing a more productive, efficient and environmentally friendly P fertilizer management strategy.

Investigating the dynamics and distribution of soil phosphorus (P) fractions can provide a basis for enhancing P utilization by crops.  Four treatments from a 29-year long-term experiment in black soil with maize cropping were involved in this study: no fertilizer (CK), inorganic nitrogen and potassium (NK), inorganic nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), and NPK plus manure (NPKM).  We analyzed soil P fractions in different soil layers using a modified Hedley sequential method.  The long-term NPKM treatment significantly increased total P by 0.6–1.6 times in the different soil layers.  The Olsen-P concentration far exceeded the environmental threshold for soil Olsen-P (50.6 mg kg^–1) in the NPKM treatment in the 0–60 cm soil profile.  Moreover, the concentrations and proportion of labile and partially labile inorganic P (Pi) fractions (i.e., NaHCO₃-extracted Pi, NaOH-extracted Pi, and dilute HCl-extracted Pi) to the sum of all P fractions (Pt) in the 0–60 cm soil profile were higher in the NPKM treatment than in the NPK treatment, indicating that manure could promote the transformation of non-labile into more labile forms of P in soil, possibly by manure reducing P fixation by soil particles.  Soil organic matter, Mehlich-3 extractable iron (Fe), and organic-bound aluminum were increased by fertilization, and were the main factors influencing the differences in the P fractions in the 0–20 cm soil layer.  Soil mineral components, i.e., free Fe oxide and CaCO₃, were the main factors influencing the P fractions in the subsoil.  The soil P transformation process varied with soil layer and fertilization.  Application of manure fertilizer can increase the labile (Olsen) P concentrations of the various soil layers, and thus should reduce the mineral P fertilizer requirement for crop growth and reduce potential environmental damage

The frequent occurrence of hailstorm in Xinjiang affects cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production and causes enormous economic loss.  The indeterminate growth habit of cotton allows for varying degrees of recovery and yield when different hail damage levels occur at different stages, which brings inconvenience to agricultural insurance claims and post-damage management.  Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate cotton recovery and yield responses to different levels of simulated hail damage at different growth stages.  Four levels of hail damage (0, 30, 60, and 90%) were simulated every 15 d from the five-leaf stage to the boll opening stage in 2018 and 2019, for a total of six times (I, II, III, IV, V, and VI).  The results showed that seed cotton yield decreased as the damage level increased and yield reduction increased when the damage was applied to older plants (for 30, 60 and 90% damage levels, yield reduction was 9–17%, 22–37% and 48–71%, respectively).  One possible reason was that the leaf area index and leaf area duration of plant canopy decreased after hail damage, resulting in a reduction in the accumulation of above-ground biomass.  However, when hail damage occurred before bloom, due to the indeterminate growth habit of cotton, the vegetative organs produced a strong compensation ability that promoted the bud development.  The compensation ability of vegetative organs decreased when hail damage occurred after bloom and the recovery time was too short to promote new boll maturity.  As the first study to understand the recovery of cotton after hail damage, it analyzed the leaf area index, leaf area duration, above-ground biomass accumulation and yield, rather than the yield alone.  The findings are of great importance for cotton production as they inform decisions about post-damage management practices, yield forecasts and insurance compensation.

Increasing the planting density is an effective way to increase the yield of maize (Zea mays L.), although it can also aggravate ovary apical abortion-induced bald tips of the ears, which might, in turn, reduce the yield.  While the mechanism underlying the regulation of drought-related abortion in maize is well established, high planting density-related abortion in maize remains poorly understood.  Therefore, the present study was designed to investigate the mechanism underlying the ovary apical abortion response to high density.  This was achieved by evaluating the effects of four different plant densities (60 000 plants ha^–1 (60 k), 90 k, 120 k, and 150 k) on plant traits related to plant architecture, the plant ear, flowering time, and silk development in two inbred lines (Zheng58 and PH4CV) and two hybrid lines (Zhengdan958 and Xianyu335).  The phenotypes of both inbred and hybrid plants were observed under different planting density treatments, and the high planting density was found to increase the phenotypic performance values of the evaluated traits.  The anthesis–silking interval (ASI) was extended, and the amount of the silk extruded from husks was reduced upon increasing the planting density.  Delayed silk emergence resulted in asynchronous flowering and ear bald tips.  Observations of the silk cells revealed that the silk cells became smaller as planting density increased.  The changes in transcript abundances in the silks involved the genes associated with expansive growth rather than carbon metabolism.  These findings further our understanding of silk growth regulation under high planting density and provide a theoretical basis for further research on improving high planting density breeding in maize.  

The wild hawthorn species, Crataegus songorica K. Koch., is an important wild germplasm resource in Xinjiang, China that has been endangered in recent years.  The genetic diversity of C. songorica K. Koch. germplasm in five populations from Daxigou, Xinjiang, China were evaluated based on phenotypic traits and ISSR molecular markers to provide basic information on resource protection, rational utilization and genetic improvement.  The F-value for the phenotypic differentiation coefficient of the 33 traits measured ranged from 0.266 to 15.128, and mean value was 13.85%.  The variation among populations was found to be lower than that within population.  A total of 303 loci were detected within the five populations by 12 primers.  Within 298 polymorphic loci, the polymorphism was 98.35%, showing a high genetic diversity in C. songorica K. Koch.  The gene diversity within population, total population genetic diversity, genetic differentiation coefficient and gene flow were 0.2779, 0.3235, 0.1408, and 3.0511, respectively.  Our results showed that C. songorica K. Koch. from Xinjiang has a high level of genetic diversity at both the phenotypic and molecular levels.  Significant genetic differentiation existed within population and the differentiation trend showed a regional association.  And in this study, in situ and ex situ conservation approaches were raised for wild hawthorn protection utilization.

    The structural characteristics of protein body accumulation in different endosperm regions of hard wheat cultivar (XM33) and soft wheat cultivar (NM13) under drought stress were investigated. Drought stress treatment was implemented from plant regreening to the caryopsis mature stage. Microscope images of endosperm cells were obtained using resin semi-thin slice technology to observe the distribution and relative area of protein body (PB). Compared with NM13, relative PB area of XM33 was significantly higher in sub-aleurone endosperm region. The amount of accumulation, including the size and relative area of PB, in two wheat cultivars was higher in sub-aleurone region than that in central region at 18 days post anthesis (DPA). Drought stress significantly enhanced the sizes and relative areas of PBs in the dorsal and abdominal endosperms in two wheat cultivars. Particularly for dorsal endosperm, drought stress enhanced the relative PB area at 18 DPA and NM13 (5.0% vs. 6.73%) showed less enhancement than XM33 (5.49% vs. 8.96%). However, NM13 (9.58% vs. 12.02%) showed greater enhancement than XM33 (10.25% vs. 11.7%) at 28 DPA. The protein content in the dorsal and abdominal endosperms of the two wheat cultivars decreased at 12 DPA and then increased until 38 DPA. Drought stress significantly increased the protein contents in the two main regions. From 12 to 38 DPA, the amount of PB accumulation and the protein content were higher in XM33 than those in NM13. The results revealed that PB distribution varied in different endosperm tissues and that the amount of PB accumulation was remarkably augmented by drought stress.

      The microscopic investigation of the floral development of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L. cv. Hongdeng) from a warm winter climate (Shanghai) and cold winter climate (Tai’an, Shandong Province, China) was conducted to explore the reason of low fruit set. The effect of hydrogen cyanamide (HCN) on floral development under warm winter conditions was also investigated. Trees grown in Shanghai with insufficient chilling accumulation exhibited little difference in the progression of microspore development compared to trees in Tai’an that accumulated adequate chilling, but showed substantial delays in ovule and embryo sac development. The growth of nucelli did not proceed beyond the macrospore mother cell and macrospore stages with abortion rates of 13, 15 and 45% by 6, 3 and 0 d before full bloom, respectively. These abnormalities in the ovule and embryo sac in the Shanghai-grown trees were eliminated by HCN application. These results suggest that chilling regulates the development of female floral organs in winter dormancy; therefore, insufficient chilling accumulation, causing abnormality of the female floral organs, restricts the cultivation of sweet cherry in warm winter regions. Interestingly, HCN application, which decreased the chilling requirements for Hongdeng, may be a potential strategy for sweet cherry cultivation in warm winter regions.

The physical and chemical heterogeneities of soils make the soil spectral different and complicated, and it is valuable to increase the accuracy of prediction models for soil organic matter (SOM) based on pre-classification. This experiment was conducted under a controllable environment, and different soil samples from northeast of China were measured using ASD2500 hyperspectral instrument. The results showed that there are different reflectances in different soil types. There are statistically significant correlation between SOM and reflectence at 0.05 and 0.01 levels in 550–850 nm, and all soil types get significant at 0.01 level in 650–750 nm. The results indicated that soil types of the northeast can be divided into three categories: The first category shows relatively flat and low reflectance in the entire band; the second shows that the spectral reflectance curve raises fastest in 460–610 nm band, the sharp increase in the slope, but uneven slope changes; the third category slowly uplifts in the visible band, and its slope in the visible band is obviously higher than the first category. Except for the classification by curve shapes of reflectance, principal component analysis is one more effective method to classify soil types. The first principal component includes 62.13–97.19% of spectral information and it mainly relates to the information in 560–600, 630–690 and 690–760 nm. The second mainly represents spectral information in 1 640–1 740, 2 050–2 120 and 2 200–2 300 nm. The samples with high OM are often in the left, and the others with low OM are in the right of the scatter plot (the first principal component is the horizontal axis and the second is the longitudinal axis). Soil types in northeast of China can be classified effectively by those two principles; it is also a valuable reference to other soil in other areas.

The effect of long-term straw return on crop yield, soil potassium (K) content, soil organic matter, and crop response to K from both straw and chemical K fertilizer (K2SO4) were investigated in a fixed site field experiment for winter wheat-summer maize rotation in 6 years for 12 seasons. The field experiment was located in northern part of North China Plain with a sandy soil in relatively low yield potential. Two factors, straw return and chemical K fertilizer, were studied with two levels in each factor. Field split design was employed, with two straw treatments, full straw return of previous crop (St) and no straw return, in main plots, and two chemical K fertilizer treatments, 0 and 60 kg K2O ha–1, as sub-plots. The results showed that straw return significantly increased yields of winter wheat and summer maize by 16.5 and 13.2% in average, respectively, and the positive effect of straw return to crop yield showed more effective in lower yield season. Straw return significantly increased K absorption by the crops, with significant increase in straw part. In treatment with straw return, the K content in crop straw increased by 15.9 and 21.8% in wheat and maize, respectively, compared with no straw return treatment. But, straw return had little effect on K content in grain of the crops. Straw return had significant influences on total K uptake by wheat and maize plants, with an increase of 32.7 and 30.9%, respectively. There was a significant correlation between crop yield and K uptake by the plant. To produce 100 kg grain, the wheat and maize plants absorbed 3.26 and 2.24 kg K2O, respectively. The contents of soil available K and soil organic matter were significantly affected by the straw return with an increase of 6.07 and 23.0%, respectively, compared to no straw return treatment. K2SO4 application in rate of 60 kg K2O ha–1 showed no significant effect on wheat and maize yield, K content in crop straw, total K uptake by the crops, soil available K content, and soil organic matter. The apparent K utilization rate (percentage of applied K absorbed by the crop in the season) showed difference for wheat and maize with different K sources. In wheat season, the K utilization rate from K2SO4 was higher than that from straw, while in maize season, the K utilization rate from straw was higher than that from chemical fertilizer. In the whole wheat-maize rotation system, the K absorption efficiency by the two crops from straw was higher than that from K2SO4.

To decipher the relationship between the inhibited shoot growth and expression pattern of key enzymes in nitrogen metabolism under root restriction, the effects of root restriction on diurnal variation of expression of nitrate reductase (NR), nitrite reductase (NiR), glutamine synthetase (GS1-1, GS1-2, GS2) and glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT, NADH-GOGAT) genes and nitrogen levels were evaluated in two-year-old Jumeigui grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.×Vitis labrusca L.) when significant differences in shoot growth were observed between treatments at expansion stage (22 days after anthesis). Grapevines were planted in root-restricting pits as root restriction and in an unrestricted field as the control. Results showed that root restriction significantly reduced shoot growth, but promoted the growth of white roots and fibrous brown roots and improved the fruit quality. (NO3 –+NO2 –)-N concentration in all plant parts, NH4 +-N concentration in white roots and total N concentration in leaves and brown roots were significantly reduced under root restriction. Gene expression analysis revealed that mRNA levels of genes related to the GS1/NADH-GOGAT pathway were lower in root-restricted than in control petioles, whereas genes involved in the GS2/Fd-GOGAT pathway were up-regulated under root restriction. Root restriction also resulted in downregulation of genes involved in nitrogen metabolism in leaves, especially at 10:00, while transcript levels of all these genes were enhanced in root-restricted white and brown roots at most time points. This organ-dependent response contributed to the alteration in NO3 – reduction and NH4 + assimilation under root restriction, leading to less NO3 – transported from roots and then assimilated in root-restricted leaves. Therefore, this study implied that shoot growth inhibition in grapevines under root restriction is closely associated with down-regulation of gene expression in nitrogen metabolism in leaves.

Rapid and mass rearing of Locusta migratoria manilensis is an urgent need to meet the increasing demand for food of people. In this study, the effects of four artificial feeds on the development, reproduction and the activities of detoxification and protective enzymes of L. migratoria manilensis in three successive generations were investigated. The results showed that sucrose and monosodium glutamate (MSG) significantly increased the net reproductive rate (R0) and the intrinsic growth rate (rm) of L. migratoria manilensis, but sodium chloride (0.17%) suppressed this increase. Furthermore, the artificial feed with sucrose and monosodium glutamate increased the activities of esterase (EST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathione-Stransferase (GST), multi-function oxidase (MFO), phenol oxidase (PO), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD), but inhibited the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). However, sodium chloride (0.17%) increased the activities of EST, AChE, CAT and SOD, and inhibited the activities of MFO, GST, PO and POD. Correlation analysis found that the increasing of PO activity and the decreasing of SOD activities were significantly related with the increasing of the intrinsic growth rate (rm). The above results indicated that sucrose and monosodium glutamate could promote the development and reproduction of L. migratoria manilensis, but Na+ inhibit such promotion with the concentration above 0.2%. The activities of PO and SOD can be used as biochemical standard to assess the effect of artificial feed.