Switchgrass as a bioenergy crop in the Loess Plateau, China: Potential lignocellulosic feedstock production and environmental conservation

doi:10.1016/S2095-3119(16)61587-3

摘要/Abstract

Abstract: A large portion of the Loess Plateau of China is characterized as “marginal” with serious land degradation and desertification problems. Consequently, two policies, Grain for Green and Western Development Action were established by the Chinese government in response to the demand for ecological protection and economic development in the Loess Plateau. These policies are designed to increase forest cover, expand farmlands, and enhance soil and water conservation, while creating sustainable vegetation restoration. Perennial grasses have gained attention as bioenergy feedstocks due to their high biomass yields, low inputs, and greater ecosystem services compared to annual crops. Moreover, perennial grasses limit nutrient runoff and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and soil losses while sequestering carbon. Additionally, perennial grasses can generate economic returns for local farmers through producing bioenergy feedstock or forage on marginal lands. Here, we suggest a United States model energy crop, switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) as a model crop to minimize land degradation and desertification and to generate biomass for energy on the Loess Plateau.

Key words: sustainability, bioenergy crop, soil erosion, Loess Plateau, switchgrass

. [J]. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 2017, 16(06): 1211-1226.

Danielle Cooney, Hyemi Kim, Lauren Quinn, Moon-Sub Lee, Jia Guo, CHEN Shao-lin, XU Bing-cheng, D. K. Lee. Switchgrass as a bioenergy crop in the Loess Plateau, China: Potential lignocellulosic feedstock production and environmental conservation[J]. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 2017, 16(06): 1211-1226.

参考文献

Al-Kaisi M M, Yin X, Licht M A. 2005. Soil carbon and nitrogen changes as influenced by tillage and cropping systems in some Iowa soils. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 105, 635–647.
An P, Inoue T, Zheng M, Eneji A E, Inanaga S. 2014. Agriculture on the Loess Plateau. In: Tsunekawa A, Liu G, Yamanaka N, Du S, eds., Restoration and Development of the Degraded Loess Plateau, China. Springer, Japan. pp. 61–74.
Anderson E K, Aberle E, Chen C, Egenolf J, Harmoney K, Kakani V G, Kallenbach R, Khanna M, Wang W, Lee D K. 2016. Impacts of management practices on bioenergy feedstock yield and economic feasibility on Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) grasslands. Global Change Biology Bioenergy, 8, 1178–1190.
Anderson E K, Voigt T B, Kim S, Lee D K. 2015. Determining effects of sodicity and salinity on switchgrass and prairie cordgrass germination and plant growth. Industrial Crops and Products, 64, 79–87.
Andrade F H, Calvino P, Cirilo A, Barbieri P. 2002. Yield responses to narrow rows depend on increased radiation interception. Agronomy Journal, 94, 975–980.
Boe A, Ross J G. 1998. Registration of ‘sunburst’ switchgrass. Crop Science, 38, 540.
Bornhold B D, Yang Z S, Keller G H, Prior D B, Wiseman Jr W J, Wang Q, Wright L D, Xu W D, Zhuang Z Y. 1986. Sedimentary framework of the modern Huanghe (Yellow River) delta. Geo-Marine Letters, 6, 77–83.
Bouton J H, Wood D T. 2012. Switchgrass Cultivar EG1101. U.S. Patent. Application No. 8319009. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, D.C., USA.
Brown R A, Rosenberg N J, Hays C J, Easterling W E, Mearns L O. 2000. Potential production and environmental effects of switchgrass and traditional crops under current and greenhouse-altered climate in the central United States: A simulation study. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 78, 31–47.
Burns J C, Godshalk E B, Timothy D H. 2008. Registration of ‘BoMaster’ switchgrass. Journal of Plant Registrations, 2, 31–32.
Burns J C, Godshalk E B, Timothy D H. 2010. Registration of ‘Colony’ lowland switchgrass. Journal of Plant Registrations, 4, 189–194.
Burson B L, Tischler C R, Ocumpaugh W R. 2009. Breeding for reduced post-harvest seed dormancy in switchgrass: Registration of TEM-LoDorm switchgrass germplasm. Journal of Plant Registrations, 3, 99–103.
Campbell J E, Lobell D B, Genova R C, Field C B. 2008. The global potential of bioenergy on abandoned agriculture lands. Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 5791–5794.
Carson M A, Morris A N. 2012. Germination of Panicum virgatum cultivars in a NaCl gradient. BIOS, 83, 90–96.
Casler M D. 2012. Switchgrass breeding, genetics, and genomics. In: Monti A, ed., Switchgrass. Springer, London. pp. 29–53.
Casler M D, Vogel K P, Harrison M. 2015. Switchgrass germplasm resources. Crop Science, 55, 2463–2478.
Chan C K, Yao X. 2008. Air pollution in mega cities in China. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 1–42.
Chen L, Wang J, Fu B, Qiu Y. 2001. Land-use change in a small catchment of northern Loess Plateau, China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 86, 163–172.
Chen L, Wei W, Fu B, Lü Y. 2007. Soil and water conservation on the Loess Plateau in China: Review and perspective. Progress in Physical Geography, 31, 389–403.
Chien N, Wang K X, Yan L D, Fu R S. 1980. The source of coarse sediment in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and its effect on the siltation of the lower Yellow River. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on River Sedimentation Held in Beijing. Guanghua Press, China. pp. 53–62.
Cook J, Beyea J. 2000. Bioenergy in the United States: Progress and possibilities. Biomass and Bioenergy, 18, 441–455.
Costich D E, Friebe B, Sheehan M J, Casler M D, Buckler E S. 2010. Genome-size variation in switchgrass (Panicum virgatum): Flow cytometry and cytology reveal rampant aneuploidy. The Plant Genome, 3, 130–141.
Dabney S M, Shields F D, Temple D M, Langendoen E J. 2004. Erosion processes in gullies modified by establishing grass hedges. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, 47, 1561–1571.
Dkhilli M, Anderson B. 1990. Salt effects on seedling growth of switchgrass and big bluestem. In: Proceedings of the Twelfth North American Prairie Conference. Cedar Falls, Iowa.
Douglas J, Lemunyon J, Wynia R, Salon P. 2009. Planting and Managing Switchgrass as a Biomass Energy Crop. Technical Note No. 3. United States Department of Agriculture-Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA.
Editorial Committee of China Energy Yearbook. 2005–2006. China Energy Statistical Yearbook. China Statistics Press, China.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 2010. Regulation of fuels and fuel additives: Modifications to Renewable Fuel Standard Program. Federal Register, 75, 26049–26053.
Feng X, Fu B, Lu N, Zeng Y, Wu B. 2013. How ecological restoration alters ecosystem services: An analysis of carbon sequestration in China’s Loess Plateau. Scientific Reports, 3, 2846.
Frank A B, Berdahl J D, Hanson J D, Liebig M A, Johnson H A. 2004. Biomass and carbon partitioning in switchgrass. Crop Science, 44, 1391–1396.
Fritsche U R, Sims R E, Monti A. 2010. Direct and indirect land-use competition issues for energy crops and their sustainable production - an overview. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 4, 692–704.
Fu B, Liu Y, Lü Y, He C, Zeng Y, Wu B. 2011. Assessing the soil erosion control service of ecosystems change in the Loess Plateau of China. Ecological Complexity, 8, 284–293.
Gao H, Li Z, Jia L, Li P, Xu G, Ren Z, Pang G, Zhao B. 2016. Capacity of soil loss control in the Loess Plateau based on soil erosion control degree. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 26, 457–472.
Gao Z J, Xu B C, Wang J, Huo L J, Li S. 2015. Diurnal and seasonal variations in photosynthetic characteristics of switchgrass in semiarid region on the Loess Plateau of China. Photosynthetica, 53, 489–498.
Gansu Rural Energy Office. 2010. Planning for the development of bioenergy in rural area. [2016-10-11]. http://www.gsncny.com/ (in Chinese)
Gelfand I, Sahajpal R, Zhang X, Izaurralde R C, Gross K L, Robertson G P. 2013. Sustainable bioenergy production from marginal lands in the US Midwest. Nature, 493, 514–517.
Gilley J E, Eghball B, Kramer L A, Moorman T B. 2000. Narrow grass hedge effects on runoff and soil loss. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 55, 190–196.
Gould F W. 1975. The Grasses of Texas. Texas A&M University, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, USA.
He X, Li Z, Hao M, Tang K, Zheng F. 2003. Down-scale analysis for water scarcity in response to soil-water conservation on Loess Plateau of China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 94, 355–361.
Hendrickson J R, Schmer M R, Sanderson M. 2013. Water use efficiency by switchgrass compared to a native grass or a native grass alfalfa mixture. BioEnergy Research, 6, 746–754.
Hill J, Nelson E, Tilman D, Polasky S, Tiffany D. 2006. Environmental, economic, and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanol biofuels. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 11206–11210.
Ichizen N, Takahashi H, Nishio T, Liu G, Li D, Huang J. 2005. Impacts of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) planting on soil erosion in the hills of the Loess Plateau in China. Weed Biology and Management, 5, 31–34.
Jiao E Z, Zhang C P. 1995. Sediment transportation and deposit in north main reaches of Yellow River. Yellow River, 11, 1–5. (in Chinese)
Jin X, Ke C Q, Xu Y Y, Li X C. 2015. Spatial and temporal variations of snow cover in the Loess Plateau, China. International Journal of Climatology, 35, 1721–1731.
Johansson K, Aleklett K. 2008. Energy system in the Loess Plateau a case study of changes during the rehabilitation period. In: Proceedings of Meeting Global Challenges in Research Cooperation. Uppsala University, Sweden. pp. 51–59.
Kang S, Zhang L, Liang Y, Hu X, Cai H, Gu B. 2002. Effects of limited irrigation on yield and water use efficiency of winter wheat in the Loess Plateau of China. Agricultural Water Management, 55, 203–216.
Keshwani D R, Cheng J J. 2009. Switchgrass for bioethanol and other value-added applications: A review. Bioresource Technology, 100, 1515–1523.
Kim S, Rayburn A L, Voigt T, Parrish A, Lee D K. 2012. Salinity effects on germination and plant growth of prairie cordgrass and switchgrass. BioEnergy Research, 5, 225–235.
Kimura R, Takayama N. 2014. Climate of the loess plateau. In: Tsunekawa A, Liu G, Yamanaka N, Du S, eds., Restoration and Development of the Degraded Loess Plateau, China. Springer, Japan. pp. 22–33.
Lal R. 2005. World crop residues production and implications of its use as a biofuel. Environment International, 31, 575–584.
Lee D K, Aberle E, Chen C, Egenolf J, Harmoney K, Kakani G, Kallenbach R L, Castro J C. 2013. Nitrogen and harvest management of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) grassland for sustainable biomass feedstock production. Global Change Biology Bioenergy, 5, 6–15.
Lee D K, Boe A. 2005. Biomass production of switchgrass in central South Dakota. Crop Science, 45, 2583–2590.
Lee D K, Doolittle J J, Owens V N. 2007a. Soil carbon dioxide fluxes in established switchgrass land managed for biomass production. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 39, 178–186.
Lee D K, Owens V N, Doolittle J J. 2007b. Switchgrass and soil carbon sequestration response to ammonium nitrate, manure, and harvest frequency on conservation reserve program land. Agronomy Journal, 99, 462–468.
Lee D K, Parrish A S, Voigt T B. 2014. Switchgrass and giant Miscanthus agronomy. In: Shastri Y, Hansen A, Rodriguez L, Ting K C, eds., Engineering and Science of Biomass Feedstock Production and Provision. Springer, New York. pp. 37–59.
Lemus R, Brummer E C, Moore K J, Molstad N E, Burras C L, Barker M F. 2008. Biomass yield and quality of 20 switchgrass populations in southern Iowa, USA. Biomass and Bioenergy, 23, 433–442.
Lemus R, Lal R. 2005. Bioenergy crops and carbon sequestration. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 24, 1–21.
Lemus R, Parrish D J, Wolf D D. 2014. Switchgrass cultivar/ecotype selection and management for biofuels in the upper southeast USA. The Scientific World Journal, 2014, 937594.
Li S, Liang W, Fu B, Lü Y, Fu S, Wang S, Su H. 2016. Vegetation changes in recent large-scale ecological restoration projects and subsequent impact on water resources in China’s Loess Plateau. Science of the Total Environment, 569, 1032–1039.
Li S Z, Chan-Halbrendt C. 2009. Ethanol production in (the) People’s Republic of China: Potential and technologies. Applied Energy, 86, S162–S169.
Li Y S. 1997. Relation between Control in Loess Plateau and No-flow in the Yellow River. Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation, 6, 41–44, 45. (in Chinese)
Li Z Y. 2004. A policy review on watershed protection and poverty alleviation by the Grain for Green Programme in China. In: Sim H C, Appanah S, Youn Y C, eds., Forests for Poverty Reduction. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. pp. 133–138.
Liang K, Liu C, Liu X, Song X. 2013. Impacts of climate variability and human activity on streamflow decrease in a sediment concentrated region in the Middle Yellow River. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 27, 1741–1749.
Liebig M A, Schmer M R, Vogel K P, Mitchell R B. 2008. Soil carbon storage by switchgrass grown for bioenergy. BioEnergy Research, 1, 215–222.
Liu W, Mi J, Song Z, Yan J, Li J, Sang T. 2014. Long-term water balance and sustainable production of Miscanthus energy crops in the Loess Plateau of China. Biomass and Bioenergy, 62, 47–57.
Liu W, Peng C, Chen Z, Liu Y, Yan J, Li J, Sang T. 2016. Sustainable bioenergy production with little carbon debt in the Loess Plateau of China. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 9, 161.
Liu W, Yan J, Li J, Sang T. 2012. Yield potential of Miscanthus energy crops in the Loess Plateau of China. Global Change Biology Bioenergy, 4, 545–554.
Lynd L R, Cushman J H, Nichols R J, Wyman C E. 1991. Fuel ethanol from cellulosic biomass. Science, 251, 1318–1323.
Ma Y, An Y, Shui J, Sun Z. 2011. Adaptability evaluation of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) cultivars on the Loess Plateau of China. Plant Science, 181, 638–643.
Ma Z, Wood C W, Bransby D I, 2001. Impact of row spacing, nitrogen rate, and time on carbon partitioning of switchgrass. Biomass and Bioenergy, 20, 413–419.
Martinez-Reyna J M, Vogel K P. 2002. Incompatibility systems in switchgrass. Crop Science, 42, 1800–1805.
Mattera J, Romero L A, Cuatrín A L, Cornaglia P S, Grimoldi A A. 2013. Yield components, light interception and radiation use efficiency of lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) in response to row spacing. European Journal of Agronomy, 45, 87–95.
McIsaac G F, David M B, Mitchell C A. 2010. Miscanthus and switchgrass production in central Illinois: Impacts on hydrology and inorganic nitrogen leaching. Journal of Environmental Quality, 39, 1790–1799.
McLaughlin S B, Kszos L A. 2005. Development of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) as a bioenergy feedstock in the United States. Biomass and Bioenergy, 28, 515–535.
Missaoui A M, Fasoula V A, Bouton J H. 2005. The effect of low plant density on response to selection for biomass production in switchgrass. Euphytica, 142, 1–12.
Mitchell R, Lee D K, Casler M. 2014. Switchgrass. In: Karlen D L, ed., Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems. John Wiley & Sons, Lincoln, NE. pp. 74–89.
Mitchell R, Schmer M. 2012. Switchgrass harvest and storage. In: Monti A, ed., Switchgrass. Springer, London. pp. 113–127.
Moore K J, Moser L E, Vogel K P, Waller S S, Johnson B E, Pedersen J F. 1991. Describing and quantifying growth stages of perennial forage grasses. Agronomy Journal, 83, 1073–1077.
Muir J P, Sanderson M A, Ocumpaugh W R, Jones R M, Reed R L. 2001. Biomass production of ‘Alamo’ switchgrass in response to nitrogen, phosphorus, and row spacing. Agronomy Journal, 93, 896–901
Mulkey V R, Owens V N, Lee D K. 2006. Management of switchgrass-dominated Conservation Reserve Program lands for biomass production in South Dakota. Crop Science, 46, 712–720.
Mulkey V R, Owens V N, Lee D K. 2008. Management of warm-season grass mixtures for biomass production in South Dakota USA. Bioresource technology, 99, 609–617.
Nakada S, Saygin D, Gielen D. 2014. Global Bioenergy Supply and Demand Projections: A Working Paper for Remap 2030. International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
National Development and Reform Commission. 2012. Enhancing the large-scale development strategy for the western region. [2016-10-11]. http://www.sdpc.gov.cn/ (in Chinese)
Nelson R G, Ascough J C, Langemeier M R. 2006. Environmental and economic analysis of switchgrass production for water quality improvement in northeast Kansas. Journal of Environmental Management, 79, 336–347.
Newell L C. 1968. Registration of Pathfinder switchgrass. Crop Science, 8, 516.
Nie J, Stevens T, Rittner M, Stockli D, Garzanti E, Limonta M, Bird A, Ando S, Vermeesch P, Saylor J, Lu H, Breecker D, Hu X, Liu S, Resentini A, Vezzoli G, Peng W, Carter A, Ji S, Pan B. 2015. Loess plateau storage of northeastern Tibetan plateau-derived yellow river sediment. Nature Communications, 6, 8511.
Nikièma P, Rothstein D E, Min D H, Kapp C J. 2011. Nitrogen fertilization of switchgrass increases biomass yield and improves net greenhouse gas balance in northern Michigan, USA. Biomass and Bioenergy, 35, 4356–4367.
Owens V N, Karlen D L, Lacey J A, et al. 2016. Regional Feedstock Partnership Report: Enabling the Billion-Ton Vision. U.S. Department of Energy and Idaho National Laboratory. INL/EXT-15-37477.
Parrish D J, Casler M D, Monti A. 2012. The evolution of switchgrass as an energy crop. In: Monti A, ed., Switchgrass. Springer, London. pp. 1–28.
Parrish D J, Fike J H. 2005. The biology and agronomy of switchgrass for biofuels. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 24, 423–459.
Pimentel D, Cerasale D, Stanley R C, Perlman R, Newman E M, Brent L C, Mullan A, Chang D T I. 2012. Annual vs. perennial grain production. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 161, 1–9.
Post W M, Kwon K C. 2000. Soil carbon sequestration and land-use change: Processes and potential. Global Change Biology, 6, 317–327.
Powlson D S, Whitmore A P, Goulding K W T. 2011. Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change: A critical re-examination to identify the true and the false. European Journal of Soil Science, 62, 42–55.
Quinn L D, Straker K C, Guo J, Kim S, Thapa S, Kling G, Lee D K, Voigt T B. 2015. Stress-tolerant feedstocks for sustainable bioenergy production on marginal land. BioEnergy Research, 8, 1081–1100.
Randall G W, Huggins D R, Russelle M P, Fuchs D J, Nelson W W, Anderson J L. 1997. Nitrate losses through subsurface tile drainage in conservation reserve program, alfalfa, and row crop systems. Journal of Environmental Quality, 26, 1240–1247.
Robertson G P, Grace P R. 2004. Greenhouse gas fluxes in tropical and temperate agriculture: The need for a full-cost accounting of global warming potentials. In: Wassmann R, Vlek P L G, eds., Tropical Agriculture in Transition - Opportunities for Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions? Springer, Netherlands. pp. 51–63.
Robertson G P, Hamilton S K, Del Grosso S J, Parton W J. 2011. The biogeochemistry of bioenergy landscapes: carbon, nitrogen, and water considerations. Ecological Applications, 21, 1055–1067.
Rui L, Liu G, Xie Y, Qinke Y, Liang Y. 2002. Ecosystem rehabilitation on the Loess Plateau. In: Regional Water and Soil Assessment for Managing Sustainable Agriculture in China and Australia. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), Canberra, Australia. pp. 358–365.
State Forestry Bureau. 2011. National strategy for the development of cellulocis bioenergy (2011–2020). [2016-10-11]. http://www.forestry.gov.cn/uploadfile/main/2013-7/file/2013-7-1-ae36e9e55bf04f71b87285abe07282e9.doc
Samson R, Delaquis E, Deen B, DeBruyn J, Eggimann U. 2016. Switchgrass Agronomy. Ontario Biomass Producers Co-Operative Inc., Canada.
Sanderson M A, Reed R L. 2000. Switchgrass growth and development: Water, nitrogen, and plant density effects. Journal of Range Management, 53, 221–227.
Sanderson M A, Reed R L, Ocumpaugh W R, Hussey M A, Van Esbroeck G, Read J C, Tischler C R, Hons F M. 1999. Switchgrass cultivars and germplasm for biomass feedstock production in Texas. Bioresource Technology, 67, 209–219.
Sanderson M A, Schmer M, Owens V, Keyser P, Elbersen W. 2012. Crop management of switchgrass. In: Monti A, ed., Switchgrass. Springer, London. pp. 87–112.
Sanderson M A, Wolf D D. 1995. Morphological development of switchgrass in diverse environments. Agronomy Journal, 87, 908–915.
Sang T A O, Zhu W. 2011. China’s bioenergy potential. Global Change Biology Bioenergy, 3, 79–90.
Sarath G, Mitchell R B, Sattler S E, Funnell D, Pedersen J F, Graybosch R A, Vogel K P. 2008. Opportunities and roadblocks in utilizing forages and small grains for liquid fuels. Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology, 35, 343–354.
Schilling K E, Jha M K, Zhang Y K, Gassman P W, Wolter C F. 2008. Impact of land use and land cover change on the water balance of a large agricultural watershed: Historical effects and future directions. Water Resources Research, 44, W00A09.
Schmer M R, Xue Q, Hendrickson J R. 2012. Salinity effects on perennial, warm-season (C₄) grass germination adapted to the northern Great Plains. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 92, 873–881.
Shaanxi Province Development and Reform Commission. 2007. Planning for the development of bioenergy in rural area. [2016-10-11]. http://www.sndrc.gov.cn/uploadfiles/f2008-01-07/200801071041256373.doc (in Chinese)
Shi H, Shao M. 2000. Soil and water loss from the Loess Plateau in China. Journal of Arid Environments, 45, 9–20.
Shimizu K, Yang S L, Kitamura Y. 2014. Irrigated agriculture and salinization. In: Restoration and Development of the Degraded Loess Plateau, China. Springer, Japan. pp. 93–110.
Skinner R H, Zegada-Lizarazu W, Schmidt J P. 2012. Environmental impacts of switchgrass management for bioenergy production. In: Monti A, ed., Switchgrass. Springer, London. pp. 129–152.
Smith C M, David M B, Mitchell C A, Masters M D, Anderson-Teixeira K J, Bernacchi C J, DeLucia E H. 2013. Reduced nitrogen losses after conversion of row crop agriculture to perennial biofuel crops. Journal of Environmental Quality, 42, 219–228.
Smith V H. 1998. Cultural eutrophication of inland, estuarine, and coastal waters. In: Pace M L, Groffman P M, eds., Successes, Limitations, and Frontiers #em/em#n Ecosystem Science. Springer, New York. pp. 7–49.
Song X, Peng C, Zhou G, Jiang H, Wang W. 2014. Chinese Grain for Green Program led to highly increased soil organic carbon levels: A meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 4, 4460.
Tao J, Yu S, Wu T. 2011. Review of China’s bioethanol development and a case study of fuel supply, demand and distribution of bioethanol expansion by national application of E10. Biomass and Bioenergy, 35, 3810–3829.
Vogel K P, Haskins F A, Gorz H J, Anderson B A, Ward J K. 1991. Registration of Trailblazer’s Switchgrass. Crop Science, 31, 1388.
Vogel K P, Hopkins A A, Moore K J, Johnson K D, Carlson I T. 1996. Registration of ‘Shawnee’ switchgrass. Crop Science, 46, 1713.
Vogel K P, Mitchell R B, Casler M D, Sarath G. 2014. Registration of ‘Liberty’ switchgrass. Journal of Plant Registrations, 8, 242–247.
Vogel K P, Sarath G, Saathoff A J, Mitchell R B. 2010. Switchgrass. In: Halford N G, Karp A, eds., Energy Crops. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. pp. 341–380.
Wang J, Fu B, Qiu Y, Chen L. 2001. Soil nutrients in relation to land use and landscape position in the semi-arid small catchment on the loess plateau in China. Journal of Arid Environments, 48, 537–550.
Wang L, Qian Y, Brummer J E, Zheng J, Wilhelm S, Parton W J. 2015. Simulated biomass, environmental impacts and best management practices for long-term switchgrass systems in a semi-arid region. Biomass and Bioenergy, 75, 254–266.
Wang L, Wang N, Wang Q. 2016. Prediction of sliding distance of seismic landslides in Loess Plateau, China. Japanese Geotechnical Society Special Publication, 2, 1177–1182.
Wei W, Chen L, Fu B, Huang Z, Wu D, Gui L. 2007. The effect of land uses and rainfall regimes on runoff and soil erosion in the semi-arid loess hilly area, China. Journal of Hydrology, 335, 247–258.
Werling B P, Dickson T L, Isaacs R, Gaines H, Gratton C, Gross K L, Liered H, Malmstrom C M, Meehan T D, Ruan L, Robertson B A, Robertson G P, Schmidt T M, Schrotenboer A C, Teal T K, Wilson J K, Landis D A. 2014. Perennial grasslands enhance biodiversity and multiple ecosystem services in bioenergy landscapes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111, 1652–1657.
Wicke B. 2011. Bioenergy Production on Degraded and Marginal Land. Utrecht University, Netherlands.
Wright L. 2007. Historical perspective on how and why switchgrass was selected as a “model” high-potential energy crop. In: ORNL/TM-2007/109 Oak Ridge. Bioenergy Resources and Engineering Systems, TN.
Wu Y, Cheng H. 2005. Monitoring of gully erosion on the Loess Plateau of China using a global positioning system. Catena, 63, 154–166.
Wu Y, Taliaferro C M. 2012. Switchgrass Cultivar. U.S. Patent Application No. 8278500. Patent and Trademark Office, Washington, D.C., USA.
Xie B, Jia X, Qin Z, Shen J, Chang Q. 2016. Vegetation dynamics and climate change on the Loess Plateau, China: 1982–2011. Regional Environmental Change, 16, 1583–1594.
Xu B C, Li F M, Shan L. 2008. Switchgrass and milkvetch intercropping under 2:1 row-replacement in semiarid region, northwest China: Aboveground biomass and water use efficiency. European Journal of Agronomy, 28, 485–492.
Xu J X. 1999. Erosion caused by hyperconcentrated flow on the Loess Plateau of China. Catena, 36, 1–19.
Yamamoto S, Endo T. 2014. Soils on the loess plateau. In: Tsunekawa A, Liu G, Yamanaka N, Du S, eds., Restoration and Development of the Degraded Loess Plateau, China. Springer, Japan. pp. 35–47.
Yan M J, He Q Y, Yamanaka N, Du S. 2014. Location, geology and landforms of the Loess Plateau. In: Tsunekawa A, Liu G, Yamanaka N, Du S, eds., Restoration and Development of the Degraded Loess Plateau, China. Springer, Japan. pp. 3–21.
Yimam Y T, Ochsner T E, Kakani V G, Warren J G. 2014. Soil water dynamics and evapotranspiration under annual and perennial bioenergy crops. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 78, 1584–1593.
Zegada-Lizarazu W, Wullschleger S D, Nair S S, Monti A. 2012. Crop physiology. In: Monti A, ed., Switchgrass. Springer, London. pp. 55–86.
Zhang Y, Ulgiati S, Dong X, Pfahler D. 2011. Using ecological criteria to develop CDM projects in Zhifanggou Valley, Loess Plateau, China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 141, 410–416.
Zhao G, Mu X, Wen Z, Wang F, Gao P. 2013. Soil erosion, conservation, and eco-environment changes in the loess plateau of China. Land Degradation & Development, 24, 499–510.
Zheng F, He X, Gao X, Zhang C E, Tang K. 2005. Effects of erosion patterns on nutrient loss following deforestation on the Loess Plateau of China. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 108, 85–97.
Zheng F, Wang B. 2014. Soil erosion in the Loess Plateau region of China. In: Tsunekawa A, Liu G, Yamanaka N, Du S, eds., Restoration and Development of the Degraded Loess Plateau, China. Springer, Japan. pp. 77–92.
Zhu X, Li Y, Peng X, Zhang S. 1983. Soils of the loess region in China. Geoderma, 29, 237–255.