Nitrogen (N) loss from fertilization in agricultural fields has an unavoidable negative impact on the environment and a better
understanding of the major pathways can assist in developing the best management practices. The aim of this study was
to evaluate the fate of N fertilizers applied to acidic red soil (Ferralic Cambisol) after 19 years of mineral (synthetic) and
manure fertilizer treatments under a cropping system with wheat-maize rotations. Five field treatments were examined:
control (CK), chemical nitrogen and potash fertilizer (NK), chemical nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer (NP), chemical nitrogen,
phosphorus and potash fertilizer (NPK) and the NPK with manure (NPKM, 70% N from manure). Based on the soil
total N storage change in 0–100 cm depth, ammonia (NH3) volatilization, nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission, N plant uptake, and
the potential N leaching loss were estimated using a mass balance approach. In contrast to the NPKM, all mineral fertilizer
treatments (NK, NP and NPK) showed increased nitrate (NO₃^–-N) concentration with increasing soil depth, indicating higher
leaching potential. However, total NH3 volatilization loss was much higher in the NPKM (19.7%) than other mineral fertilizer
treatments (≤4.2%). The N₂O emissions were generally low (0.2–0.9%, the highest from the NPKM). Total gaseous loss
accounted for 1.7, 3.3, 5.1, and 21.9% for NK, NP, NPK, and NPKM treatments, respectively. Estimated N leaching loss
from the NPKM was only about 5% of the losses from mineral fertilizer treatments. All data demonstrated that manure
incorporation improved soil productivity, increased yield, and reduced potential leaching, but with significantly higher NH₃
volatilization, which could be reduced by improving the application method. This study confirms that manure incorporation is an essential strategy in N fertilization management in upland red soil cropping system.

Upland red soils have been identified as major CO2 and N2O sources induced by human activities such as fertilization. To monitor characteristics of soil surface CO2 and N2O fluxes in cropland ecosystems after continuous fertilizer applications over decades and to separate the respective contributions of root and heterotrophic respiration to the total soil CO2 and N2O fluxes, the measurements of soil surface CO2 and N2O fluxes throughout the maize growing season in 2009 were carried out based on a fertilization experiment (from 1990) through of the maize (Zea mays L.) growing season in red soil in southern China. Five fertilization treatments were chosen from the experiment for study: zero-fertilizer application (CK), nitrogen-phosphorus- potassium (NPK) fertilizer application only, pig manure (M), NPK plus pig manure (NPKM) and NPK with straw (NPKS). Six chambers were installed in each plot. Three of them are in the inter-row soil (NR) and the others are in the soil within the row (R). Each fertilizer treatment received the same amount of N (300 kg ha-1 yr-1). Results showed that cumulative soil CO2 fluxes in NR or R were both following the order: NPKS>M, NPKM>NPK>CK. The contributions of root respiration to soil CO2 fluxes was 40, 44, 50, 47 and 35% in CK, NPK, NPKM, M and NPKS treatments, respectively, with the mean value of 43%. Cumulative soil N2O fluxes in NR or R were both following the order: NPKS, NPKM>M>NPK>CK, and soil N2O fluxes in R were 18, 20 and 30% higher than that in NR in NPKM, M and NPKS treatments, respectively, but with no difference between NR and R in NPK treatment. Furthermore, combine with soil temperature at -5 cm depth and soil moisture (0-20 cm) together could explain 55-70% and 42-59% of soil CO2 and N2O emissions with root interference and 62- 78% and 44-63% of that without root interference, respectively. In addition, soil CO2 and N2O fluxes per unit yield in NPKM (0.55 and 0.10 kg C t-1) and M (0.65 and 0.13 g N t-1) treatments were lower than those in other treatments. Therefore, manure application could be a preferred fertilization strategy in red soils in South China.